Chapter 7: Gesture, Space and Time
This study of Lascaux is the result of several years of observations carried out, above all, with the eyes of a naturalist. The data gathered over the course of time thus relate to very different scientific fields, such as archaeology, ethology or geology. They link anthropic phenomena with natural ones, man with animal and the profane with the sacred.
It should be emphasized that scientific doubt was always present during this enquiry and, as a result, we refrained from all unfounded opinions, indeed from all thoughts of a dogmatic nature. Faced with the monument that is Lascaux, and despite the relatively large amount of time devoted to its study, we remain convinced that we have succeeded in identifying and decoding only a fraction of its message. This most exceptional theme of decorated caves remains all the more difficult to grasp in that some of its numerous aspects lie on the threshold with the irrational. Here, we encounter a world in which the temptation to overstep its limits is sometimes great, if we allow our imagination to wander even slightly.
This study has motivated us nor only to examine the site itself, but also to reconnoitre the whole of the underground environment of the Black Petigord accessible today. It relies upon the analysis, at different scales, of the natural context and the parietal works. This course was to lead us from the Vezere drainage basin to Lascaux, from the figures on the walls to the forms of the walls, from rudimentary traces to the spatial and temporal organization of the decorated ensemble, each stage bringing its yield of information. It was possible to obtain a number of partial answers concerning, on the one hand, the selection and occupation of the site and, on the other, the ways of dealing with the pictorial use of the underground space and the construction of the panels. A geomorphological approach to the region revealed important variations in the landscape, due in large part to the petrographic characteristics of the Upper Coniacian and to its remarkable homogeneity. These properties favoured the formation of entablatures, or cliffs, resulting from the down-cutting of the Vezere and its tributary streams such as the Beunes, the Vimont or the Manaurie. To both sides of this steep-sided zone, upstream from Castelmerle, in the region of Lascaux, and downhill from Saint-Cirq, to the west, the landscape changes, presenting a more hilly appearance, with subdued slopes. This phenomenon is related to a decrease in the homogeneity of the rock and to the replacement of the Upper Coniacian horizon by that of the Campanian, in particular -- s unit less conducive to this type of steep topography. These changes created a surrounding landscape that is more open in contrast to the more constricted central area.
At the base of the Upper Coniacian we have recorded a change in the texture of the rock. Its greater porosity has led to the formation of a level of rock shelters along both sides of the Vezere and, to some extent, in the valleys of its tributaries. This long horizontal recess, interrupted by the areas of confluences, maintains the same character throughout the entire steep-sided region of the Vezere drainage basin, between Thonac and Les Eyzies. It favoured the establishment of habitation sites throughout the Upper Palaeolithic, such as those at La Madeleine, Laugerie- Haute, Laugerie-Basse or Gorge-d'Enfer. On the other hand, we have noticed that this hollow formation is no longer visible in the adjacent small valleys. It is buried below valley bottom deposits formed since the Neolithic. The deposition of these materials during the Postglacial covered the rock shelters, notably those in the Beunes, leaving the ancient occupation sites inaccessible from that time on. These geological conditions have left the Upper Palaeolithic habitation sites with a relatively singular distribution: their number is greater in the valley of the Vezere and far smaller in the small tributary valleys.
This is not the only example of the influence of geology on the motivation and manner of human settlement in this region. At the very heart of this level of the Upper Coniacian, more precisely within its upper part, another layer is characterized by karstic properties that are more marked than elsewhere. In fact, almost 70 per cent of the 306 known sites (including Lascaux) are here.
We have emphasized that the state of preservation of this highly karstified level presented significant differences. Destroyed by erosion in the valley of the Vezere, which may explain the small number of caves recorded, it retains its integrity in those of the Beunes, from the confluence to the upper reaches of their valleys, hence the higher number of caves.
Furthermore, access to the systems appears much more problematical in the main valley because the cliffs do not feature any secondary projections. This gives the entire outcrop an absolute verticality, which can exceed 40 metres. Without special equipment, this type of profile impedes access to the karstified level and hence to the caves. On the other hand, in the tributary valleys and, most particularly in those of the Beunes, the elevation of the formations is divided into terraces. These successive platforms favour movement from one to the other and thus the approach to the entrances of the caves.
In summary, this analysis has revealed a high concentration of rock-shelter habitation sites in the valley of the Vezere, in contrast to the valley of the Beunes. As for the deep caves, the proportions are reversed. This major tributary can boast, within a relatively limited area, more than a third of the decorated caves in the Department of Dordogne, including Font-de-Gaume, Les Combarelles and Bernifal. We thus observe that the ancient distribution of the habitation sites on the one hand and the decorated caves on the other - two clearly distinct groups - results from a combination of phenomena essentially geological in origin, which are linked with the formation of the landscapes and the caves, processes of erosion of the cliffs and the infilling of the bottoms of the valleys. Upper Palaeolithic people knew their territory perfectly and exploited it optimally with regard to the possibilities offered, the result of very ancient natural phenomena. These geological phenomena have continued and have hidden some of the habitation sites. It is necessary to bear them in mind during the study of human settlement patterns or while prospecting for sites.
Beyond the local geological constraints, a second factor intervenes, which is apparently cultural in origin. There is a particular concentration of decorated caves dating to the period from the end of the Solutrean and the Lower Magdalenian. including Lascaux, Saint-Cirq, Bara-Bahau, Gabillou (in the valley of the Isle) and Villars (further to the north in the drainage basin of the Dronne). These sites have been attributed to the same period, in part based on formal analogies in their depictions, but also because one sees at them the repetition of exceptional themes - for example, the quadrangular sign, which is present at Lascaux, Gabillou and Bara-Bahau, or the theme of the man opposite a bison, which one finds in a more complete form at Lascaux and Villars or more reduced at Saint-Cirq, Gabillou and Bara-Bahau. Again, all the caves are located in similar landscapes, on the flanks of gently sloping hills, which distinguishes them from the sanctuaries of the Middle Magdalenian -- Font- de-Gaume, Rouffignac, Les Combarelles or Bernifal, for instance - which are in much more steep-sided landscapes. The choice of the site of Lascaux therefore seems to be determined as much by the geomorphological properties of the region as by the conditions of access - with no particular constraints - and by the inconspicuous character of the entrance, which is less easily detectable than an opening with a porch at the foot of a cliff. (... )
187 Head and neck of the yellow horse, locality of the Upside-down Horse.
The morphology of the engraved or painted surfaces, which often extend into an overhang or indeed a vault, to a large extent conditioned the execution of the decorated panels, the framework of the different compositions and the animation of the animals, sometimes even suggesting a three-dimensional graphic approach.
The presence of a significant portable lithic and bone assemblage, scattered throughout the cave, and the numerous markings on the walls, executed as far as the most remote zones, attest to the wish to explore everything and to take over the whole of the subterranean space. This is true of the majority of the great decorated sites, no matter what the period, including Niaux, Chauvet or Cussac, [56] and shows all the signs of sacralization.
The contrasting surfaces, resulting from the specific mechanical, granulometric and chromatic properties of the rock, encouraged a certain variation in the methods used. The support thus appears to have been another major element affecting the choices made and the decisions taken by Palaeolithic man. Its variations caused a very marked topographical division, as the Hall of the Bulls and the Axial Gallery are different from the other sectors of the cave. The calcite encrustation, which covers almost the whole of the walls of these two spaces, has a reflective power that marks them out. In the other caves of the Vezere drainage basin we have observed this formation very rarely, in most cases over only a few square decimetres; moreover, it is often associated with elements that interrupt its homogeneity or present such large gaps that the underlying rock, which is always chromatically more dense, appears over large areas.
The exceptional optical properties of the wall support in the Hall of the Bulls and the Axial Gallery, together with its increased hardness and light relief, encouraged the artists of Lascaux to paint it and to choose appropriate tools. In the other parts of the cave, the friability of the rock necessitated the use of a range of complementary tools, particularly for engraving. The methods employed imply an experienced hand because the application of colour to the painting or the removal of rock by cutting are unforgiving of mistakes and leave indelible traces on the support. The rare corrections show the very great skill of these people in overcoming difficulties of access and the irregular character of the morphology of the support.
The art of Lascaux is characterized by the sheer number of figures represented, accounting for almost a seventh of all known examples of parietal art in France. Of the 1,963 representations counted, 915 are animal figures, 434 signs, 613 indeterminate figures and 1 is human. They occur in relatively uniform concentrations, except in the Passageway and the Apse. In this last space, with its very modest dimensions, there are no fewer than 1,073 figures. This number alone far exceeds that of any other of the great sites of Palaeolithic parietal art. It is a sanctuary at the heart of a sanctuary.
The bestiary is largely dominated by the theme of the horse (ill. 187), with 364 representatives. There are just 28 aurochs (ill. 188), but this theme nevertheless remains prominent due to its visual impact in the first two sectors, where the animals are huge. Beyond this point, it rends to recede in favour of the image of the bison. This last animal, represented 26 times, is found at the three extremities of the cave (locality of the Upside-down Horse, Chamber of the Felines and Shan). The ibex accompanies it on several occasions, but with a certain discretion, on dividing panels such as that of the Falling Cow close to the Red Panel or that of the frieze of the Seven Ibexes engraved immediately above the Panel of the Imprint. On the other hand, the stag (ill. 189), in second place with 90 representatives, remains some distance away from these animals but comes closer to the horses and the aurochs. The carnivores, bear (ill. 190) and felines (ill. 131), are less numerous and have a very inconspicuous presence. The creation of these works, whether they are figurative (the animals and the man of the Shaft) or geometric (the signs), follow well-defined rules, specific to each painted or engraved theme, and a remarkable adaptation to the support that testifies to a natural determinism, as in numerous other circumstances.
188 Head and neck of the second aurochs, Hall of the Bulls.
The study of the representations of the equids, which we have stressed, shows that the methods of constructing each image and the positioning of the different anatomical elements rely on a recurring chronology. This process, conducted in successive stages, implies the use of implements adapted to the morphological and physical properties of the wall. The first actions involved spraying colouring materials to portray the mane, then the neck and the flank of the animal. It is in the course of the following phases that the techniques diverge, more particularly during the rendering of the outlines and the anatomical details, such as the fore- and hindlimbs, the tail, and the bridge and tip of the nose. The variations recorded depend on the degree of hardness of the support. Drawing was used for the hardened surfaces of the Hall of the Bulls and its axial extension, and engraving for the friable supports of the Passageway and the sectors beyond. This striking difference might, in a superficial interpretation, suggest the involvement of two distinct groups, but this is not the case. As we have seen, the repetition of the actions, the persistence of the themes and the construction of the figures are all indications of the uniformity of the ensemble of these parietal works.
89 The central subject of this frieze of the Swimming Stags, Nave, is the most detailed drawing of the panel, resembling many other examples in the compositions of the friezes.
We have also shown that change of technique is not only related to the nature of the support. On several occasions, and very locally, the tool has been changed in order to define the outlines of the same animal- the neck, the croup or the flank -- which cannot be attributed to constraints of access to the walls.
The first studies at Lascaux emphasized the difficulties of access to the upper levels of the galleries and the halls and suggested that Palaeolithic man may have used scaffolding. This hypothesis makes sense for a few rare sections of the galleries, notably the Axial Gallery, bur its extension to the whole of this area does not seem feasible. As already mentioned, numerous ledges underlie the panels apart from in the first third of this gallery. These projections would have given the artist access to the walls and thus placed the majority of the surfaces to be painted or engraved within easy reach. For the zones beyond reach, we have observed a change of technique, such as for the black bull of the Axial Gallery or the one in the Hall of the Bulls above the entrance to the Passageway. In these two cases, spraying, which requires a certain proximity to the wall surface, is replaced by a drawn line. The extension of the manual reach created by an instrument used as a brush or a pad permitted access to the entire surface to be painted, without the need for an artificial structure.
The expression of the third dimension constitutes one of the distinctive features and one of the strong points of this art. It is effective at several levels, from the smallest anatomical details to the subject as a whole. It also appears in the distribution of the different elements represented in the composition of a panel. The interpretation and the rendering of the relief presuppose the anticipation of an action and the pursuit of a graphic technique that can achieve the illusion of depth, as is shown by many examples.
The most common convention was to leave a reserve (a blank), thus isolating the body from the fore- and hindlimbs located in the background. This gap reduces their graphic importance relative to those located on the side of the observer. However, this three-dimensional approach went much further. On certain figures, in particular those of the diptych of the Crossed Bison, a difference of construction between the fore- and hindlimbs is noticeable, the latter being distinctly more elementary because they are placed in a more remote position. On the same panel, the composition benefited from the morphology of the wall's angled interface, with each plane receiving one of the two representations. Moreover, the forward-sloping line around which these images are joined reinforces the symmetrical movement of the two animals away from each other.
With a desire to execute figures with optimal proportions, the artists resorted to distorting some of them deliberately through anamorphosis. C...) We have observed a similar approach in the layout of certain panels constructed around a single theme. The frieze of the Small Stags and the group of horses located in front of the Falling Cow also obey the same criteria of adapting their lines relative to their position in space. The animals in the foreground are presented with all their detail; the others are progressively less detailed the further away they are from the observer, thus conveying distance.
190 Of the outline of the bear painted in black, only the upper line, the frontal section and the tip of the right hindlimb extend beyond the edge of the very broad ventral band of the fourth bull, Hall of the Bulls.
These graphic inventions in the paintings of Lascaux constitute one of the great moments of pictorial art - in no other sanctuary is it carried to this level of perfection. At many sites with parietal art, the natural relief or irregularities in the rock (fissures, concretions, flake scars) are occasionally used as substitutes for certain anatomical details of the animals represented. This is rare at Lascaux. On the other hand, the structural heterogeneity of the wall, the interfaces of strata or the channel of the roof, and also the variations of shapes produced by overhangs, projections of the wall or ledges, provide the basis for the creation of horizontal fields, which are generally clearly developed. They are also potential surfaces for expression. Palaeolithic people exploited these configurations of the walls to position linear compositions that can extend over several tens of metres, as in the Hall of the Bulls. These shapes create natural frameworks that delineate the work, and indeed provide the draft of a composition: they hold the eye and direct, in some way, the spatial distribution of the figures. Even if the natural setting does not, perhaps, influence motivation, it does to a large extent determine the form. This characteristic is due in large part to the specific architecture of the site. Indeed, one sees a very marked twofold topographical division in the morphology of the galleries. The art appears to complement this very closely. There is a sort of opposition between the very structured assemblages (the Hall of the Bulls, Axial Gallery, Nave, Shaft [ill. 191] and Chamber of the Felines) and the other locations (the Passageway and, to a lesser extent, the Apse), where the distribution of the figures seems to be more confused, even if this is mere appearance.
The structure of the compositions in a frieze depends on particular, horizontally very extended surfaces. Each associates animals of the same species, forming what we have termed monothematic groups. The analysis of the form and technique of each motif demonstrates the individuality of the gesture. The homogeneity of the dimensions of each figure, their regular spacing and their alignment along the same line show that each of these assemblages was created at a single instant. The strength of the image is reinforced when the drawn animal occupies a dominant spatial position. Its power is increased tenfold by the accumulation and the repetition of the motifs. The convention behind the construction of these pictorial groups is thus not limited to a simple juxtaposition of the themes: its purpose is, above all, the creation of homogeneous monothematic ensembles.
Analysis of superimpositions showed that, on all the panels in which these animals were represented, the image of the horse is always placed under that of the aurochs, while the latter is always below the stags. The theme of the horse was thus depicted first; it was followed by that of the aurochs, then the stag. These sequences are repeated persistently in all sectors of the cave.
This 'horse-aurochs-stag' order had its rules and demonstrates once more the structured and deliberate nature of this parietal art. Another conclusion follows on from this: the distribution of the works is not limited to an ordered repetition of the motifs on the panels, bur also follows a precise chronology. The systematic linking of the animal images shows that there existed a structuring not only in space, as was demonstrated by Max Raphael, followed by Annette Laming-Emperaire and Andre Leroi-Gourhan, but that at Lascaux this construction also enters another dimension, that of time.
The comparative study of the coats of the animals and their peculiarities showed a close relationship between the species shown and distinct seasons. The analysis of seasonal characteristics revealed that the horses were represented with features corresponding to the end of winter and the beginning of spring, the aurochs during summer and the stags in autumn. For each species, these periods correspond to the mating season, an event never itself reproduced on the walls. This in no way implies that the works were necessarily created during the season depicted.
It is appropriate to combine these observations with the sequence in which the paintings and engravings were created, and indeed there is a close correspondence between the two. The chronology of the parietal works follows closely that embodied by the annual variations of the coat and behaviour of the animals (ill. 192). The 'spring- summer-autumn' cycle can be superimposed on the 'horse-aurochs-stag' sequence, which also incorporates the first indications of the animals mating. The organization of the ensemble of figures at Lascaux acknowledges a structure, both in terms of its creation and meaning, that is determined by time.
191 The man, the bison and the bird of the Shaft, more than all the other compositions, have prompted a large number of interpretations.
This interconnection of graphic sequences and biological cycles reinforces the very great unity of the sanctuary. The creation of the parietal works stems from a rational design, which is shown by a rigorous spatial organization of the figures and a precise temporal logic. These observations suggest that the art of Lascaux is largely the product of an activity limited in rime and possibly belonging to a single generation. The last chronological estimate, 18,600 years BP, is based on a radiocarbon test on a fragment of a spearhead found during the excavation of the Shaft. It therefore pushes back previous datings of around 17,000 years BP. These archaeological remains ought thus to be placed in the period of time covering the end of the Solutrean and the Lower Magdalenian. The art of Lascaux would foreshadow the great parietal expansion of the Middle Magdalenian while still preserving the Solutrean tradition.
From the Upper Palaeolithic period and, without doubt, well before, man has formulated rules in order to codify and order all the activities of his life, whether profane or sacred - the two being inseparable most of the time. The history of religions shows that certain customs or traditions were shared by the majority of so-called primitive societies. These universals recur irrespective of time - from our origins to the present day - and irrespective of place - from Siberia to the Amazonian forest. Among these practices, that relating to the sacralization of a place remains invariable. Sacralization transforms a cave into a closed space because it is explored over its entire extent. The way is lined by a succession of markings applied to the walls or the floors as a sign of occupation. Structured in this way, this closed setting contrasts with the conditions outside, where space is boundless and associated with chaos. This process must have led to a gathering of people, indeed to a degree of sedentarization.
This concept of the sacralization of the underground environment inevitably raises questions about the spiritual meaning of the evidence, even though we are unable to come to any solid conclusions in this area. Several studies have attempted to discover the meaning of this legacy by means of numerous theories, some of which take a cosmographical approach. The line of argument made in support of the latter interpretation often consists of reproducing the geometry of a field of stars and superimposing it over a scatter of dots created using specific anatomical details of a group of animal figures or signs. Although, by taking into account the movements of the stars, it is relatively simple to recreate the image of the sky as it would have appeared to Palaeolithic people, 18,000 years ago, the selected photographs of sketches of parietal figures not only lack any metrical properties, but are normally affected by serious distortions, especially at Lascaux, where the highly irregular walls and the 'keyhole' cross section of the galleries greatly accentuates this problem. Furthermore, the integration of the two topographical models, stellar and parietal, offers so many combinations that any interpretation becomes impossible.
Nevertheless, the link between these two components - the one astronomical, the other derived from the underground environment - should certainly nor be rejected: it is the argumentation and the precise interpretation drawn from it that must be reconsidered. We have considered this possibility since 1972, without ever obtaining sufficient credible evidence to permit progress to be made in this direction. Meanwhile, thanks to our investigations, we have discerned a more plausible alternative path. Definite clues encouraged us to proceed in this direction.
The numerous studies carried out on Lascaux and its natural context, which extended to the whole of the region of the Black Perigord, reveal the organization of the relationship between the three inseparable elements represented by gesture, time and space. They ate at the origin of the creation of this image of the Palaeolithic world, a vast fresco that reproduces a sublime model. With its overhanging walls and paintings extending to the ceiling, recurring features from the Hall of the Bulls to the Nave, the morphological characteristics of this cave bear some resemblance to the architecture of the celestial vault: this is the major contribution of the natural context.
The second contribution arises from the chronology and the primary meaning of the works. We have established that the creation of the panels followed an immutable scheme (horse-aurochs-stag'), over the course of which the space acquires its full value. As we have seen, this sequence follows a biological progression, revealed by the seasonal characteristics of the animals depicted. The different phases of these biological cycles, involving horses, aurochs and stags in succession, indicate the onset of mating - the animal ritual from which life arises. Beyond this surface interpretation lies the rhythm, indeed the regeneration of the seasons, which is symbolized by this phenomenon. The phases of spring, summer and autumn thus form a metaphorical evocation which. in this context, links biological and cosmic time.
This series of observations and associated deductions has led us to think that it is, after all, not rash to imagine that these vast painted or engraved compositions might be a testimony to spiritual ideas, the symbolic import of which is founded upon a cosmogonic perception. From the entrance to the cave depths, this record of the first mythologies unfurls before our eyes, with its central theme, the creation of life, and, beyond that, the origin of the world.
In the framework of this study I have had the privilege of visiting Lascaux many times, often alone. With the work accomplished, I would linger for a few moments, either at the foot of the great bulls in the Hall of the Bulls or on the stairs in front of the entrance to the Apse. This allowed me to adjust my vision. It was during these brief moments that contact with this special world was the most bewitching. Some days, imperceptibly at first and then overwhelmingly, I had to cut short this contemplation when it all became too emotional. Beyond the excellence of the works themselves, Lascaux draws its power of suggestion from the constant presence of an image: whatever your position, an animal is watching you, questioning you. Aurochs, horses, stags, bison and ibexes are omnipresent and, through them, the dominating impression of man.
192 Horse with extended forelimbs, Hall of the Bulls.